Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and innovation as the country’s primary efficient force.

The preliminary stages of China’s AI development were slow and encountered significant challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research study was led by researchers who had received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has actually progressively developed a nationwide program for expert system development and emerged as one of the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business must lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI development has actually substantially affected Chinese society in many locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, accommodation and food services, and production are the top markets that would be the most affected by further AI deployment.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous aspects as there are couple of present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law resolving AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to restrict China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the advancement of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and advancement of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and technology for China’s financial growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and development did not start up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional providing federal government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s national technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further expanded its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study tasks has significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise discussed in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This occasion coincided with the government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a significant turning point in China’s development of synthetic intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a tactical technology that has actually ended up being a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The file prompted significant investment in a number of tactical areas connected to AI and called for close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the celebration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an important part to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year experienced the development of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council mentioned the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, as well as public and personal financial investments. [14] A few of the specified inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI method consist of the potential of expert system for commercial transformation, much better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research. With the emergence of big language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on fundamental generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specifications for data collection and design training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy dialogue with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI security threats, consisting of abuse of information or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors produced with generative synthetic intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The 4th and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been authorized by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be critical to the future of worldwide military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make basic contributions to fundamental AI theory and to solidify its location as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the global leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to combine state preparation and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market securities, creating asymmetric advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research study concern and ranks AI initially amongst “frontier industries” that the Chinese government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding mainly focused on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government funding also supported multiple AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study revealed that, while China is enormously buying all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to national assistance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and local industrial advancement and ecosystem. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and worldwide collaborations and jobs with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in regulating AI services and enforcing obligations on AI business, the general method to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population creates an enormous quantity of available data for companies and researchers, which offers a crucial advantage in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of web users, generating big amounts of information for device knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most commonly employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large amounts of data from its residents assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only conducive and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D however also provides incredible financial possible attracting both worldwide and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The extreme advancement of the details and communication innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are 2 examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures specifying that tech companies will be obligated to ensure AI-generated material upholds the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal obligation for training data and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the general public, business must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the model declines to answer certain concerns connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that keeps libraries including training information sets frequently used for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local business with training information that CCP leaders think about acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has warned that the Chinese government uses generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political issues. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to address questions connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term economic growth. In the past, standard markets in China have battled with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, operational costs are anticipated to minimize while an increase in efficiency generates income development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to get rid of adoption barriers including expenses and lack of appropriately trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI advancement because of increasing demands for workers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial development is focused in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to develop a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular focus on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching different types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous vehicles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report launched later on showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and ruining a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense innovation and worries of a widening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China intends to use AI for exploiting big chests of intelligence, creating a common operating photo, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, decision support, software application, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of limits exist between Chinese business companies, university research labs, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of guiding AI advancement concerns and accessing innovation that was ostensibly established for civilian purposes. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese federal government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from industrial business and research organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of information labeling to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily relevant AI applications, possibly granting it lawful access to U.S. innovation and intellectual home. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from rival or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its design use prohibition for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly considering that China deals with obstacles in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have actually been working in the field for over ten years, while approximately the same percentage of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research study items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China particularly want to resolve military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the very first children’s curriculum in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user security, information privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI concepts calling for important needs in long-lasting research and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and lots of national governments have actually developed legislation addressing data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all sort of data collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are needed to classify their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific standards on how to govern and manage information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements connected to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the evidence provided and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, writes that -technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary area of judges are intentional goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been promoted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to worldwide AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed out on both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated incredibly keen understanding of the issues surrounding AI and global security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive necessary change.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unrivaled resources and enormous untapped potential, but the West has world-leading competence and a strong research culture. Instead of worry about China’s progress, it would be sensible for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship routine has stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI creates obstacles for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing impacts on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to greater injustice of workers and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in higher capital build-up and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the primary responsible star in the area of generative AI (creating new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI risks intensifying military competitors in between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential threat from synthetic intelligence have actually occurred. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is generally optimistic regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI exceed the dangers, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees discovered that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% thought it needs to be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively utilized AI facial recognition has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, release of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a government deliberately using artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, specifically by local municipal cops departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of artificial intelligence business
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.